Abstract
This chapter is written for the non-Indigenous and non-anthropologist student or social scientist who aims to study Indigenous peoples’ politics or other aspects of Indigenous cultures and nations. I review what I consider to be the main tasks and attitudes required of the non-Indigenous scholar before and during the research and dissemination of results, for their research to be, at least in part, interculturally sensitive. The essay argues that respect, reciprocity, and a decolonizing ambition are three principles that should guide our research. I draw on examples from my own research experiences. In highlighting the importance of studying Indigenous politics throughout, the essay also grapples with the question of whether non-Indigenous scholars should study Indigenous peoples’ politics and the extent to which their research is reliable. While the recommendations contained here should apply to non-Indigenous researchers who adopt any methodological approach, they will be particularly relevant to those conducting qualitative research and interacting with Indigenous peoples.
Originally published as:
Falleti, Tulia G. 2024. “Studying Indigenous Peoples’ Politics: Recommendations for Non-Indigenous Researchers” in Cyr, Jennifer and Sara Wallace Goodman, Editors, Doing Good Qualitative Research, Oxford University Press, Chapter 24, pp. 275 to 285.
Overview
I write this chapter for the non-Indigenous and non-anthropologist student or social scientist who is considering embarking on research with (maybe even for) Indigenous communities.1 In particular, I write this essay for students and colleagues in political science who are non-Indigenous and who are considering researching Indigenous peoples’ politics, by which I mean the politics of Indigenous collective rights and of Indigenous collective demand-making vis-à-vis the state.2 The politics of Indigenous rights and demands are changing the international legal landscape and global order,3 the territorial organization of nation-states,4 the education systems and languages of the state,5 the types and practice of democracy,6 as well as the political economy of natural resource extraction7 and of energy transitions,8 just to mention some topics that are of interest to political scientists. Indigenous peoples’ politics should be of paramount importance in political science, yet until recently, it has remained largely understudied in our discipline.
From 1990 to 2020, only ten research articles were published containing the word “Indigenous” or “Native” (as applied to Indigenous peoples) in either their title or abstract in the top three generalist political science journals (six articles in the American Political Science Review, one in the American Journal of Political Science, and three in the Journal of Politics). Expanding the search to include World Politics, a leading comparative politics journal, five more articles can be found in this thirty-year period. Kennan Ferguson has powerfully denounced this disciplinary exclusion and has proposed sixteen methodological, cognitive, and organizational changes to Indigenize our field.9 There have been noteworthy exceptions, particularly in the comparative study of Indigenous politics in Latin America.10 Indeed, this scholarship has set important research agendas upon which we can build our future research.
As collective identities acquire greater relevance to define legal rights and political demands, political scientists and sociologists are increasingly turning to the study of Indigenous nations and politics.11 The qualitative research tools we use to study Indigenous politics are the same as those used to study other populations: such as in-depth interviews, open-ended surveys, focus groups, ethnographic fieldwork, shadowing of key informants, participant observation, among others.12 However, as non-Indigenous researchers we must ask ourselves, how do we do this in a way that is non-extractive and interculturally sensitive? Moreover, why would non-Indigenous researchers study Indigenous peoples’ politics rather than Indigenous scholars themselves?
Anthropologists, especially cultural and linguistic anthropologists and archeologists, have a long tradition of studying Indigenous peoples and cultures. Their methods and approaches have been the subject of debates and critiques regarding gendered, racist, and colonial practices, such as the extraction of knowledge and cultural heritage and the silencing or invisibilization of female Indigenous collaborators or co-authors.13 Anthropologists have attempted to address and redress these colonial legacies and extractive tendencies, with deep reflexivity and transformative work.14 Such debates are too expansive to discuss here and anthropologists and archeologists are better positioned to chart them. However, the ethical imperatives for non-Indigenous social scientists of working with Indigenous communities in a culturally sensitive and non-extractive way demands a careful discussion, separate from other considerations we may have when working with other vulnerable and marginalized populations.
In this essay, I will argue that as non-Indigenous researchers, conducting research with Indigenous communities or on Indigenous topics, our research and actions must be guided by the principles of respect, reciprocity, and a decolonizing ambition.15 These attitudes and practices must be developed on the preparatory as well as in the research and dissemination stages.
Preparatory Stage
More so than the study of other populations, researching with Indigenous communities requires a great deal of preparation. Indigenous communities constitute nations within nations, even if not recognized as such by the colonial powers or the republican nation-states. Indigenous nations are built on ancestral traditions, practices, and oral histories. They have their own languages, whether currently spoken or not. Moreover, Indigenous communities have their own ontology and epistemologies, even if in some cases hybridized with colonial religions, ontologies, and epistemologies. Thus, much learning and preparation is required prior to conducting qualitative research with Indigenous communities, on their history and present. This research may be developed in parallel to the preparation of an application to your university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB), which oversees that research is conducted ethically, at least as defined by university administrations and reflecting current standards of the scientific community.
But unlike the histories of countries, for instance, that are readily available; the academic accounts of the history and political lives of Indigenous nations, who have relied mostly on oral tradition rather than written record, are either thin or missing. Moreover, Indigenous peoples were the subjects of assimilation, elimination, or genocide by the colonial powers first and the nation-states later on. Outside of Anthropology, Native American and Indigenous Studies, and some subfields in History, Indigenous nations have been largely invisible in academia. Furthermore, not only is the existing academic record on the histories of many Indigenous nations thin, until recently, it had been written by and from the perspective of the colonizer or those who sought to dispossess and dominate Indigenous peoples. Fortunately, as the number of Indigenous scholars grows, so does their scholarship on their histories, cultures, and societies, and their critiques of colonialism and racism.16
Thus, the initial two preparatory tasks for the non-Indigenous social scientist are: first, to learn the history of the Indigenous peoples who will be part of their research; and second, find the Indigenous voceros, the relevant Indigenous voices and their own narratives. There are Indigenous nations, such as the Navajo or the Mapuche, for instance, who have their own members in the academy and in journalism, writing about their history and present. These are the authors and scholarship we must know before we delve into our field research. In the case of First Nations in Canada or Native peoples in the United States, the Indigenous self-production of knowledge is extensive and members of these nations have found institutional homes in U.S. and Canadian universities—even if their representation in academia is still very low. In other cases, instead, we must dig much deeper to learn about the relevant histories and narratives of the Indigenous peoples we are engaging with. This has been, for instance, my experience in doing research with the Wichí people in the province of Salta in Northern Argentina. The written record is thin. It is taking me several visits to the area, many conversations with local inhabitants, and access to the very localized production and distribution of knowledge, to gather some of the relevant history and context for the research. While not exclusively, I have found some relevant information in facsimile reports, locally published books, and locally gathered data. I found some of these documents in the town’s church, the hospital, and nearby health clinics.17 It is also worth highlighting that, as it is the case with practically any collective group, Indigenous peoples and communities do not speak with one single voice. On occasions they might, but often the researcher must search, recognize, and become familiar with the multiple voices, viewpoints, and interpretations that narrate Indigenous nations’ history and present struggles.
Third, just as the comparative political scientist or sociologist must learn the languages of the areas of the world or countries where they seek to conduct research, so too the non-Indigenous qualitative researcher should learn the languages of the Indigenous nations she works with, especially when the colonial language is not widely spoken. There is no substitute for the deep understanding of foreign cultures that familiarity with their language may afford. This is also the case with Indigenous cultures. In my research, I found a substantial and meaningful difference between the degree to which research and communication were successful when conducted in the Spanish language with Mapuche vis-à-vis Wichí communities. Whereas Spanish is widely spoken in the Wallmapu (the traditional ancestral territory of the Mapuche people in the south of what is nowadays Argentina and Chile), Spanish is a secondary and often times rarely spoken language among Wichí households in the north of Argentina. While communication with Mapuche leaders and community members in Spanish was possible and effective, both in Argentina and Chile, communication in Spanish with Wichí women was very limited. When speaking through a Wichí interpreter, Wichí women were more talkative and forthcoming with information and experiences. But relying exclusively on the Wichí interpreter’s mediation in our communication was a major impediment to fully grasping the meaning and deeply comprehending what the Wichí women were conveying. At times, for instance, long speeches in Wichí by the interviewed women would be reported as one sentence in Spanish back to me. Yet, the educational materials and opportunities to learn the Wichí language are scarce, and this is admittedly a pending task for me. Ideally, we would become fluent in the Indigenous language that is required for meaningful exchanges. If for reasons of access to educational materials or time such goal is unattainable, we must be cognizant and explicit about the limitations of our research.
Fourth, Indigenous nations not only have different languages, but also ontologies, worldviews or conceptions about the physical and spiritual world and their multiple connections. Indigenous ontologies, transmitted orally through generations, often include religious and spiritual believes, which are also foreign to the non-Indigenous researcher. In my experience, understanding and respecting Indigenous ontologies has been the most challenging learning process I have encountered since studying Indigenous peoples’ politics. Indigenous ontologies often present a spirituality that I cannot fully grasp or share. However, I must respect it. During the preparatory stage of our research, we should therefore seek, to the degree that is available or accessible to us, to comprehend the ontology of the Indigenous peoples we will engage with. At the same time, it is important to understand that Indigenous peoples have been impacted by the colonial encounter and the colonial experience. Indigenous ontologies may be permeated with new religions (evangelism in particular) and colonial cultures. In my experience, I have had to negotiate between my ontology and understanding of the world and that of the Indigenous communities or individuals that provide me with glimpses into their philosophy or interpretations of the human, non-human, and natural worlds. After several years interacting with Indigenous leaders and community members, I can better appreciate the boundaries and partial connections between my ontology and theirs. Where significant gaps emerge between my ontology (even if evolving) and theirs, I strive for respect and for holding value judgement. Interculturality, in my opinion, is rooted in this respect for what is different and to a large extent incommensurable, non-comparable, and non-analogous to what is familiar to us. In other words, I have had to learn to recognize that there are certain beliefs, philosophies, or ontologies that I will not fully comprehend, but that I must respect them.18
Learning the Indigenous history, reading their authors, learning their language, and experiencing the process of understanding their ontology, are the bases for a respectful relationship with our Indigenous partners, collaborators, and the Indigenous leaders and community members with whom we seek to interact. Such interactions must be based on the Indigenous communities’ choice to participate in research projects and to share their knowledge with researchers.
Fieldwork Research and Dissemination Stages
During the fieldwork experience, together with respect, reciprocity must guide our behavior and interactions. Reciprocity requires acknowledging our structural power and privilege, whenever existent, and employing strategies to minimize that power differential.19 Among other attitudes and dispositions, this requires humility, the ability to listen and observe (even during long conversational silences), and a sincere disposition to learn—or unlearn. In our conversations or interviews with Indigenous people, we are there to learn. I recall an interview with a Mapuche machi (spiritual leader) in Chile, where she turned the tables and our interview started with thirty minutes of questions about me, my research, its significance, and purpose. In few occasions I have felt so deeply examined as at the onset of that interview. When the machi felt satisfied with my answers, she agreed to give me the interview and answer my questions. What followed was an amazing conversation where I learned much more than I could ever teach my students.
But reciprocity is more than the capacity to observe, listen, and learn. It also entails giving back to the community or the individuals who open their doors and give unselfishly of their knowledge and time to us. There are easy and concrete ways to do this. For instance, when I have invited Indigenous leaders to speak at my university or in my courses, I have paid them honoraria, as I would do with scholars and distinguished guests. I recognize that traditional and ancestral knowledge—regardless of formal education or degrees—is at least as valuable to my learning community as the knowledge that is recognized with university degrees and scholarly publications.
Steps like this are part of the work I believe we must do to start decolonizing academia.20 But we can do much more, of course. Many scholars are guided by the principle that no research on Indigenous communities should be conducted without their active participation and co-authorship. Indigenous communities say: “Nothing about us, without us.” I am striving to make this a reality in the research I undertake, identifying Indigenous collaborators and making them coauthors in the research process and dissemination of materials. This may entail exploring other ways of disseminating information than the written journal articles or books we are used to. Video documentaries are a tool for dissemination of Indigenous knowledge and experiences, and Indigenous leaders and communities may use those video documentaries for their own purposes. The growing digital humanities units in our universities, could be hubs for the dissemination of findings or materials coauthored with Indigenous communities. There is even a new platform, Mukurtu,21 designed with Indigenous communities to manage and share their digital cultural heritage.
Finally, Indigenous politics does not happen in a vacuum. To study Indigenous politics also implies to fully appreciate the myriad ways in which colonialism, racism, and the nation-state have defined and shaped what are Indigenous identities, rights, demands, and politics. To this date, national legislation and census categories shape and define Indigenous identities. National and subnational legislation define the rights of Indigenous peoples and nations. Colonialism, racism, and the dispossessions of territories, bodies, and cultural heritage have profoundly affected and shaped these Indigenous communities. At the same time, Indigenous communities have resisted and continue to do so. In the international, national, and local arenas, Indigenous rights and demands are progressing. Whether it is the right to an intercultural education, intercultural health, a plurinational state, their ancestral territory, or to free, prior, and informed consent, Indigenous communities are putting forward multiple alternatives to colonialism and colonial power. As non-Indigenous social science researchers, our more just reciprocity strategy should be to amplify those alternative futures and work to repair some of the historical and generational damage inflicted upon Indigenous peoples.
Why should a non-Indigenous social scientist study Indigenous politics?
As non-Indigenous researchers we should be acutely aware of our positionality as non-members of the Indigenous communities we are working with. I started studying Indigenous political demands and states’ responses as a consequence of my research on local community participation, which in turn developed from my previous interest in processes of decentralization of government. However, in researching Indigenous politics, as with no other previous research topic, I have repeatedly found myself asking whether as a non-Indigenous scholar I have the right to research Indigenous politics. Is it ethical? Of course, the Institutional Research Board approval process at my university requires compliance with ethical research practices. But is that enough? Is it ethical or even productive for me, a non-Indigenous researcher to study Indigenous politics? Never before I had thought that certain topics or questions could be outside of what I was morally or ethically “allowed” to research. Yet, the extraction of Indigenous knowledge, territories, bodies, and cultural heritage, which have taken place for over hundreds of years and have been perpetrated by white descendants like me, constituted reasons to ponder. Could I ever be entrusted with Indigenous knowledge?
I want to believe that with time, it will be mostly Indigenous scholars who will write about the rights, demands, and politics of Indigenous peoples, as well as so many other aspects of their nations and cultures. At most, we should become strategic coauthors, called upon by Indigenous scholars when our particular expertise may be needed. I want to believe that with time, it will be mostly Indigenous scholars who will primarily communicate about Indigenous peoples’ politics to wider audiences. This will imply, among other rights and opportunities, access to higher and postgraduate education and academic jobs. Yet, these are rights and opportunities that unfortunately are scarcely available to many Indigenous communities, particularly in the Global South. Thus, I have come to terms with the idea that in the meantime, the scholarship of non-Indigenous social scientists is necessary to amplifying the voices of Indigenous nations and their demands, to contribute to rectifying the historical and political record, and to making progress on plurinationality and sovereignty claims as well as reparations and restorative justice measures, where Indigenous nations have called for them. In other words, I believe the non-Indigenous social scientists (me included) can be allies of Indigenous nations, but ultimately it should be up to Indigenous scholars to study Indigenous people’s politics, and we should pave the way for this to happen. In the future, non-Indigenous scholars could instead focus their attention on interactions between Indigenous nations and other political entities such as states, corporations, or international organizations and complement the scholarship of Indigenous scholars.
In my experience, the position of allyship has implied to bridge cultures and communities. I have done so in my classroom, in particular in the course “People of the Land: Indigeneity and Politics in Argentina and Chile,”22 as well as in the programming of the Center for Latin American and Latinx Studies (CLALS) that I have directed at the University of Pennsylvania (2016-2024), and of the Latin American Studies Association (LASA) Section of Center Directors that I have chaired (2021-2023). In my course, the students and I started reading mostly Indigenous and some non-Indigenous scholars on how to decolonize academia, and political science in particular. We also learned how to conduct in-depth interviews, particularly in situations of power asymmetry. During the second part of the course the students, working in pairs, interviewed Mapuche Indigenous leaders, who were paid honoraria as our course’s distinguished guests. The course’s collective final project was a 23-minute video documentary with selections of the interviews conducted, which was approved by and shared with our interviewees.23 At CLALS and in collaboration with partners in a Just Futures Initiative grant from The Mellon Foundation, our team has brought Indigenous leaders to lecture at Penn, such as Glicérica Jesús da Silva24 and Luiz Eloy Terena,25 and has engaged with scholars, practitioners, and Indigenous communities in participatory research throughout Latin America. With the executive committee of the Section of Center Directors of LASA, we launched a series in Fall of 2021 entitled “Indigeneity, Afro-descendants, and other marginalized populations in Latin America.” During the 2021-2022 academic year, seven events were organized by partnering Centers from the U.S., the U.K. and Latin America, who engaged 26 speakers, the majority of whom were Indigenous or Afro-descendants. Finally, as a member of my university community, I strive to increase the number of Indigenous students and faculty who are part of our university.
Of course, the practice of allyship can take different actions and forms depending on the researcher’s positionality and the needs and desires of the Indigenous communities and members with whom we are involved or collaborate through research and education.
Why does it matter and what can you do?
In my opinion, Indigenous politics holds the key to some of the most interesting problems and questions of our time. Studying Indigenous politics implies to learn, measure, understand, and ultimately come to terms with the consequences of colonialism and racism in our societies and countries. It brings complexity to the celebrated narratives of statehood and nation-state building, highlighting the processes of exclusion, forced removal, violence, even genocide that took place as the “us” of the modern nation-states were created. Indigenous knowledge, in some cases, also holds the key to sustainability and to better care for the planet we inhabit. In all the Indigenous ontologies I know of, nature, humans, and non-humans are not separated, but part of a single whole. Caring for humans, flora, animals, and the environment is all part of the same process. Indigenous politics has taught me that dispossessions of territory are intimately related to collective and individual health. And in my opinion, the best way to approach these topics and questions is through a qualitative methodology that pursues understanding or verstehen, as Max Weber wrote.26
Should you, as a non-Indigenous researcher choose this path of study, my final recommendation is to escape the simple, reductionist, and easy binary classifications. As Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui has written, a world of gray is possible.27 Studying Indigenous politics has taught me to avoid binary reductionist labels and to embrace hybridity, instead. This does not mean that anything goes or that differences do not exist. There can be differences, in rights, demands, and politics in hybrid settings depending, for example, on what aspects of the identity become more salient in different times and contexts. The nation-states and anthropologists have had a central role in defining some identities and communities, while at the same time invisiblelizing or erasing others. In Latin America, for instance, for most of the 20th century Indigenous peoples were erased and re-defined as “campesinos.” Indigenous identities are nowadays made more visible and, alongside Indigenous languages, recuperated where they had been suppressed. To study with Indigenous peoples we should guide our practice with respect, reciprocity, and strive to indigenize the academy and decolonize our own disciplinary knowledge.
Recommended readings
De la Torre, Joely [or Proudfit Joely]. 2004. “A Critical Look at the Isolation of American Indian Political Practices in the Nonempirical Social Science of Political Science”. In Indigenizing the Academy. Transforming Scholarship and Empowering Communities, ed. D. A. Mihesuah and A. C. o. W. Wilson. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 174-90. The author provides an American Indian perspective on the state of political science in the United States academia. She invites readers to examine Native Americans as sovereign political entities and highlights the importance of understanding group rights and tribal culture, history, customs, and issues.
Kovach, Margaret. 2018. “Doing Indigenous Methodologies. A letter to a Research Class.” In The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research. Fifth Edition, ed. N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications Inc., 214-34. Kovach invites her readers to do Indigenous methodologies, which are based on Indigenous epistemologies. According to Indigenous epistemology, knowledge is holistic (empirical, experiential, sensory, and metaphysical); arises from interconnectivity and interdependency, as well as from a multiplicity of sources, including nonhuman; and is animate and fluid.
Foxworth, Raymond, and Cheryl Ellenwood. “Indigenous Peoples and Third Sector Research: Indigenous Data Sovereignty as a Framework to Improve Research Practices.” Voluntas, no. February (2021). Foxworth and Ellenwood propose Indigenous data sovereignty (IDSov) as “the right of Indigenous peoples and nations to govern the collection, ownership, and application of their own data” (p.1) and discuss a series of practices “to engage in research with and for –and not on—Indigenous communities.” (p.7)
References
Anaya, S. James. Indigenous Peoples in International Law (Second Edition). New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Bicas, Mara. “Democracia Aymara Andina: Taypi Y Diversidad Deliberativa Para Una Democracia Intercultural.” In Estado Plurinacional Y Democracias. Alice En Bolivia, edited by Boaventura de Sousa Santos and José Luis Exeni Rodríguez. La Paz: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2019.
Blackhawk, Ned. Violence over the Land. Indians and Empires in the Early American West. Cambridge, MA and London, England: Haravard University Press, 2006.
Bruchac, Margaret M. Savage Kin: Indigenous Informants and American Anthropologists. The University of Arizona Press, 2018.
Brysk, Alison. From Tribal Village to Global Village. Indian Rights and International Relations in Latin America. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000.
Carter, Christopher L. States of Extraction: The Emergence of Indigenous Rights in Latin America.
Cunha Filho, Clayton Mendonca. Formacao Do Estado E Horizonte Plurinacional Na Bolívia. Curitiba Appris, 2018.
Deloria, Philip J. Playing Indian. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998.
Eisenstadt, Todd A. Politics, Identity, and Mexico’s Indigenous Rights Movements. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
Estes, Nick. Our History Is the Future. Standing Rock Versus the Dakota Access Pipeline, and the Long Tradition of Indigenous Resistance. London, New York: Verso, 2019.
Falleti, Tulia G., and Thea N. Riofrancos. “Endogenous Participation: Strengthening Prior Consultation in Extractive Economies.” World Politics 70, no. 1 (January 2018): 86-121.
Ferguson, Kennan. “Why Does Political Science Hate American Indians?”. Perspectives on Politics 14, no. 4 (2016): 1029-38.
Gustafson, Bret. New Languages of the State. Indigenous Resurgence and the Politics of Knowledge in Bolivia. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2009.
Jung, Courtney. The Moral Force of Indigenous Politics. Critical Liberalism and the Zapatistas. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Lightfoot, Sheryl. Global Indigenous Politics. A Subtle Revolution. New York: Routledge, 2016.
Lucero, Antonio. Struggles of Voice. The Politics of Indigenous Representation. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2008.
MacLean, Lauren M. “The Power of the Interviewer.” In Interview Research in Political Science, edited by Layna Mosley, 67-83. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2013.
Madrid, Raúl L. The Rise of Ethnic Politics in Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
McMurry, Nina, Danielle Hiraldo, and Christopher L. Carter. “The Rise of Indigenous Recognition: Implications for Comparative Politics.” APSA-Comparative Politics Newsletter XXXI, no. 1 (Spring 2021): 93-102.
Pairican Padilla, Fernando. Malon. La Rebelión Del Movimiento Mapuche, 1990-2013. Santiago, Chile: Pehuén Editores, 2014.
Panich, Lee M., and Sara L. Gonzalez. The Routledge Handbook of the Archaeology of Indigenous-Colonial Interaction in the Americas. London and New York: Routledge, 2021.
Rice, Roberta. The New Politics of Protest. Indigenous Mobilization in Latin America’s Neoliberal Era. Tucson: Univesity of Arizona Press, 2012.
Rivera Cusicanqui, Silvia. “Liberal Democracy and Ayllu Democracy in Bolivia: The Case of Northern Potosí.” Journal of Development Studies 26, no. 4 (1990): 97-121.
———. Un Mundo Ch’ixi Es Posible. Ensayos Desde Un Presente En Crisis. La Paz, Bolivia: Piedra Rota y Tinat Limón, 2020.
Schavelzon, Salvador. El Nacimiento Del Estado Plurinacional De Bolivia: Etnografia De Una Asambela Constituyente. La Paz, Bolivia: CEJIS and Plural Editores, 2012.
Simpson, Audra. Mohawk Interruptus: Political Life across the Borders of Settler States. Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2014.
Trejo, Guillermo. Popular Movements in Autocracies. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Tuck, Eve, and K. Wayne Yang. “Decolonization Is Not a Metaphor.” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society 1, no. 1 (2012): 1-40.
Unzueta, Maria Belén. Consensus and Conflict over Ethnic Classifications.
Van Cott, Donna Lee. From Movements to Parties in Latin America: The Evolution of Ethnic Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Velasco-Herrejón, Paola, Thomas Bauwens, and Martin Calisto Friant. “Challenging Dominant Sustainability Worldviews on the Energy Transition: Lessons from Indigenous Communities in Mexico and a Plea for Pluriversal Technologies.” World Development 150 (2022): 1-17. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105725. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X21003405.
Weber, Max. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978 [1922].
Wright, Claire, and Alexandra Tomaselli. The Prior Consultation of Indigenous Peoples in Latin America: Inside the Implementation Gap. New York: Routledge, 2019.
Yashar, Deborah J. Contesting Citizenship in Latin America: The Rise of Indigenous Movements and the Postliberal Challenge. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
I capitalize the word Indigenous when referring to a person, community, or nation to distinguish it from the word indigenous as applied to non-human entities originary of a certain place (as an indigenous plant, for instance). In doing so, I follow the recommendations of the American Native Association of Journalists as well as the New York Times writing style. I recommend non-Indigenous researchers, to capitalize the word Indigenous when applied to individuals, communities, or nations. ↩︎
Following Cobo (1986), Foxworth and Ellenwood (2021) define Indigenous peoples as those “who have ‘a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories and consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those territories’ ” (p.1) . ↩︎
Alison Brysk, From Tribal Village to Global Village. Indian Rights and International Relations in Latin America (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000); S. James Anaya, Indigenous Peoples in International Law (Second Edition) (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); Sheryl Lightfoot, Global Indigenous Politics. A Subtle Revolution (New York: Routledge, 2016). ↩︎
Salvador Schavelzon, El nacimiento del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia: Etnografia de una Asambela Constituyente (La Paz, Bolivia: CEJIS and Plural Editores, 2012); Clayton Mendonca Cunha Filho, Formacao do Estado e Horizonte Plurinacional na Bolívia (Curitiba Appris, 2018). ↩︎
Bret Gustafson, New Languages of the State. Indigenous Resurgence and the Politics of Knowledge in Bolivia (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2009). ↩︎
Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui, “Liberal Democracy and Ayllu Democracy in Bolivia: The Case of Northern Potosí,” Journal of Development Studies 26, no. 4 (1990); Mara Bicas, “Democracia aymara andina: taypi y diversidad deliberativa para una democracia intercultural,” in Estado Plurinacional y democracias. ALICE en Bolivia, ed. Boaventura de Sousa Santos and José Luis Exeni Rodríguez (La Paz: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2019). ↩︎
Tulia G. Falleti and Thea N. Riofrancos, “Endogenous Participation: Strengthening Prior Consultation in Extractive Economies,” World Politics 70, no. 1 (January 2018); Claire Wright and Alexandra Tomaselli, The Prior Consultation of Indigenous Peoples in Latin America: Inside the Implementation Gap (New York: Routledge, 2019). ↩︎
Paola Velasco-Herrejón, Thomas Bauwens, and Martin Calisto Friant, “Challenging dominant sustainability worldviews on the energy transition: Lessons from Indigenous communities in Mexico and a plea for pluriversal technologies,” World Development 150 (2022), https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105725, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X21003405. ↩︎
Kennan Ferguson, “Why Does Political Science Hate American Indians?,” Perspectives on Politics 14, no. 4 (2016). ↩︎
Deborah J. Yashar, Contesting Citizenship in Latin America: the Rise of Indigenous Movements and the Postliberal Challenge (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Donna Lee Van Cott, From movements to parties in Latin America: the evolution of ethnic politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Antonio Lucero, Struggles of Voice. The politics of Indigenous Representation (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2008); Roberta Rice, The New Politics of Protest. Indigenous Mobilization in Latin America’s Neoliberal Era (Tucson: Univesity of Arizona Press, 2012); Guillermo Trejo, Popular Movements in Autocracies (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Todd A. Eisenstadt, Politics, Identity, and Mexico’s indigenous rights movements (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Raúl L. Madrid, The Rise of Ethnic Politics in Latin America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Courtney Jung, The Moral Force of Indigenous Politics. Critical Liberalism and the Zapatistas (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Brysk, From Tribal Village to Global Village. Indian Rights and International Relations in Latin America. ↩︎
Christopher L. Carter, States of extraction: The Emergence of Indigenous Rights in Latin America, in progress; Maria Belén Unzueta, Consensus and Conflict over Ethnic Classifications, in progress, Department of Sociology Princeton University; Nina McMurry, Danielle Hiraldo, and Christopher L. Carter, “The rise of Indigenous recognition: implications for comparative politics,” APSA-Comparative Politics Newsletter XXXI, no. 1 (Spring 2021). ↩︎
Among others, see the chapters by Cyr, Gellman, Pisano, and Pearlman in this volume. ↩︎
Margaret M. Bruchac, Savage Kin: Indigenous Informants and American Anthropologists (The University of Arizona Press, 2018); Lee M. Panich and Sara L. Gonzalez, The Routledge Handbook of the Archaeology of Indigenous-Colonial Interaction in the Americas (London and New York: Routledge, 2021). ↩︎
I thank my anthropologist colleague Kristina Lyons for her related comment. ↩︎
I use common sense definitions for respect and reciprocity. With regards to “decolonization” there is an ample literature and debate on the topic, which I cannot cover in the space afforded here. For an excellent introduction to what decolonization is and is not, see Eve Tuck and K. Wayne Yang, “Decolonization is not a metaphor,” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society 1, no. 1 (2012). I thank Raymond Foxworth and José Antonio Lucero for recommending this article to me. ↩︎
e.g., Ned Blackhawk, Violence over the Land. Indians and Empires in the Early American West (Cambridge, MA and London, England: Haravard University Press, 2006); Silvia Rivera Cusicanqui, Un mundo ch’ixi es positble. Ensayos desde un presente en crisis (La Paz, Bolivia: Piedra Rota y Tinat Limón, 2020); Audra Simpson, Mohawk interruptus: political life across the borders of settler states (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2014); Philip J. Deloria, Playing Indian (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1998); Lightfoot, Global Indigenous Politics. A Subtle Revolution; Fernando Pairican Padilla, Malon. La Rebelión del Movimiento Mapuche, 1990-2013 (Santiago, Chile: Pehuén Editores, 2014); Nick Estes, Our History is the Future. Standing Rock versus the Dakota Access Pipeline, and the Long Tradition of Indigenous Resistance (London, New York: Verso, 2019). ↩︎
When information outside of the field sites is scarce, our “preparatory stage” for research continues through the iteration of multiple fieldwork research visits. ↩︎
I have also found that I can respect Indigenous ontologies as long as they do not violate human rights. So far, I have learned that my cultural understanding and respect end where I suspect the possibility of a human rights violation (particularly in the case of Indigenous nations that are not untouched). I am, furthermore, cognizant that the human rights I uphold are temporally bound (i.e., defined by our historical time) and derived from the liberalism doctrine that is part of colonialism and of the Indigenous peoples’ colonial experience. I acknowledge there is an unresolved tension in this position. ↩︎
Lauren M. MacLean, “The Power of the Interviewer,” in Interview Research in Political Science, ed. Layna Mosley (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 2013). ↩︎
According to Tuck and Yang (2012), decolonizing the academy will remain an aspiration, or always work-in-progress, given the history and legacies of settler colonial states, societies, and economies. ↩︎
Link to syllabus: https://upenn.box.com/s/qvlg86dgt8kcfklprnfyt4t0ejegnra5 ↩︎
Link to video: https://upenn.box.com/s/0ebbrhqplvlpuisto6iztinuov90swsp ↩︎
Also know as Célia Tupinambá, she is a well-known Indigenous leader, teacher, intellectual and artist from the village of Serra do Padeiro, located in the Tupinambá de Olivença Indigenous Territory (southern Bahia, Northeastern Brazil). ↩︎
Dr. Luiz Eloy Terena has served as the general counsel for the Articulation of Indigenous Peoples of Brazil (APIB – Associação dos Povos Indígenas do Brasil). ↩︎
Max Weber, Economy and society: an outline of interpretive sociology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978 [1922]). ↩︎
Rivera Cusicanqui, Un mundo ch’ixi es posible. Ensayos desde un presente en crisis. ↩︎
Citation
Falleti, Tulia G.. 2024. 'Studying Indigenous Peoples’ Politics: Recommendations for Non-Indigenous Researchers'. Dispossessions in the Americas. https://dia.upenn.edu/en/content/FalletiT007/


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